Pre-Colonial Period
Early Hindu-Buddhist Kingdoms
The emergence of early Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms marks Indonesia's first recorded history. These kingdoms were heavily influenced by trade with India and adopted Hinduism and Buddhism.
- Kutai Kingdom in East Kalimantan (4th century) is considered the earliest Hindu kingdom.
- Tarumanagara in West Java (5th century) left seven stone inscriptions in Pallava script.
- By the 7th century, Srivijaya emerged as a dominant maritime empire based in Sumatra.
Sources: Coedès, George (1968). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press.
Majapahit Empire
Majapahit was a vast thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia, based on the island of Java. It reached its peak during the reign of Hayam Wuruk (1350-1389) under the leadership of prime minister Gajah Mada.
- The empire's influence extended over much of modern-day Indonesia. The Nagarakretagama (1365) describes it as controlling 98 tributaries.
- Developed a sophisticated bureaucracy with officials maintaining detailed records on taxes and trade.
- Crafted a syncretic Hindu-Buddhist culture evident in the temples of Penataran and other archaeological sites.
Sources: Pigeaud, Theodore G. Th. (1960). Java in the 14th Century: A Study in Cultural History.
Colonial Period
First European Contact
Portuguese explorers led by António de Abreu were the first Europeans to arrive in the archipelago, marking the beginning of European influence in the region.
- Malacca had been conquered by Portugal in 1511, providing a base for regional exploration.
- The Portuguese sought to control the spice trade, particularly nutmeg and cloves from the Maluku Islands.
- Their forts in Ternate, Ambon, and Timor became strategic outposts but never achieved full territorial control.
Sources: Reid, Anthony (1988). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680: The Lands below the Winds.
Dutch East India Company (VOC)
The Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) was formed as a chartered company to conduct trade with Asia. It became the dominant European power in the archipelago for nearly two centuries.
- Established Batavia (now Jakarta) as headquarters in 1619 under Jan Pieterszoon Coen.
- Implemented monopoly systems through forced cultivation and treaties with local rulers.
- Controlled most of Java by the late 17th century through political manipulation and military force.
- Declared bankrupt in 1799 with its assets transferred to the Dutch state.
Sources: Gaastra, Femme S. (2003). The Dutch East India Company: Expansion and Decline.